Continuous lighting at low PPFD improves energy efficiency while preserving growth and quality of lettuce in vertical farming systems

Vertical farming systems (VFs) offer high production efficiency in controlled environments (CEA), but their energy requirement and associated carbon footprint are strongly constrained by the high energy demand of artificial lighting is strongly constrained by the energy demand of artificial lighting. This study assessed whether different combinations of photoperiod and photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD; 16 L:8 D at 250 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹, 12 L:12 D at 340 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹, and continuous 24 L:0 D at 170 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹) affect growth, physiology, and energy performance of two crisphead lettuce cultivars [(Lactuca sativa L. var. crispa - ‘Falstaff’ (green) and ‘Copacabana’ (red)] when the daily light integral (DLI) is maintained constant (14.4 mol m⁻²day⁻¹). Yield, morphological traits, chlorophyll fluorescence, and gas exchange parameters did not differ among lighting treatments, indicating comparable photosynthetic functioning under all photoperiod–PPFD combinations. However, continuous lighting (24 L:0 D) improved energy use efficiency (EUE) and light use efficiency (LUE), while reducing lighting costs per unit of produced biomass and demonstrating a clear benefit in terms of resource utilization. Cultivar-related differences were more pronounced than treatment effects, with red lettuce showing higher levels of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity, while maintaining similar morphological responses. Overall, the results show that under a constant DLI, photoperiod manipulation obtained by adjusting PPFD has a limited impact on plant physiology but can substantially influence yield and energy efficiency. Continuous moderate- intensity lighting thus emerges as an effective strategy to enhance the economic and environmental sustainability of VFs without compromising crop performance