Effects of mycorrhizal applications on the fate in soil and plants of pharmaceuticals deriving from the treated wastewater reuse in agriculture

The reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture could be a sustainable strategy to solve water scarcity problem. Nevertheless, the irrigation with treated wastewaters can be responsible to the release of pharmaceuticals (PhACs) into soils and their translocation into crops, which can result in toxic effects on humans. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can be employed for the removal of PhACs from soil, reducing their possible input into crops. This study aimed to evaluate the use of treated wastewater for the irrigation of mycorrhizal artichoke plants and the possible presence of PhACs in their edible parts. Artichoke plants, not inoculated and inoculated with two different AMF, were irrigated with treated wastewater (WW), fresh water (FW) or fresh water spiked with eight PhACs at a concentration of 200 ppb (EW), a much higher concentration than is normally found in wastewater. The inocula were a crude inoculum of one AMF (MSE) and a commercial inoculum (MSY), containing two AMF. Soils with mycorrhizal plants showed reduced PhACs concentration, confirming the positive role of AMF in the removal of PhACs. Only with EW irrigation, the antibiotic carbamazepine and the antifungal fluconazole were found in all artichoke organs. In addition, MSE determined a significant reduction in the concentration of carbamazepine and fluconazole in plant organs compared to MSY. Finally, the yield of artichoke was not affected by the type of water used. Therefore, the results of the present study suggested a safe use of treated wastewater in agriculture.