Bio-ecology and management of phlebotomine sand flies: unraveling the complexity of vector control

Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are small, blood-feeding insects found in a wide range of ecosystems, from tropical and subtropical regions to temperate climates. Among the pathogens transmitted by these tiny insects (i.e., viruses, bacteria, and protozoa), Leishmania spp. are the most significant disease agents affecting humans and domestic animals, mainly in low-income countries, where prevention and control are challenging. Despite substantial progress in understanding the biology of sand flies and the parasites they transmit, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding their biology and ecology. Research into sand fly behavior, feeding preferences, resting sites, and breeding sites across various ecological settings is relevant for designing targeted interventions. Additionally, advances in innovative control tools are being explored to reduce the use of pyrethroids. These may include natural repellents (e.g., volatile organic compounds produced by vertebrate hosts), genetically modified sand flies (through gene editing or symbiont modification), and biological agents such as entomopathogenic fungi. These alternative tools offer promising avenues for developing a sustainable and integrated control strategy for sand flies. In this review, we provide insights into the bioecology of sand flies and highlight novel approaches that may enhance the effectiveness of sand fly control efforts.