Philosophy in the Eastern Roman Empire

Philosophy in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantine philosophy, refers to the social and intellectual practices connected to the meanings of the word philosophy in medieval Greek texts. According to Byzantine sources, philosophy refers to (a) monastic life, (b) pagan Greek philosophy, (c) philosophical wisdom compatible with Christianity and guided by revelation, and (d) philosophical expertise within the framework of institutionalized teaching activities. For various reasons, the relevance and existence of a philosophical tradition in the Eastern Roman Empire have been questioned and challenged. These reasons are: (i) the common prejudice harking back to the Enlightenment, which conceives of medieval Greek intellectuals as mere transmitters of classical philosophy and literature to the later generations of Renaissance scholars; (ii) the inveterate Eurocentric approach to medieval intellectual history that sees the roots of modern European identity in the Latin Middle Ages—medieval Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek philosophy are only incidentally considered concerning their contribution to forming the Latin tradition; and finally, (iii) the current-day prejudiced view of medieval philosophy as a mere offshoot of theology. In recent times, a more nuanced approach has suggested a comprehensive and inclusive attitude to the material, including what the Byzantines themselves understood as philosophy and what modern scholars regard as philosophically relevant. The chronological boundaries of the period are disputed. In general, scholars acknowledge the existence of three phases: early, middle, and late. The late Byzantine period spans from the Byzantine reconquest of Constantinople after the Latin conquest of the city in 1204 to 1453. The middle Byzantine period spans from the end of the Iconoclastic Controversy (843) to the sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade (1204). As to the early Byzantine period, the boundaries are less clear. According to some, the early period includes Late Antiquity until the Arab conquest of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt (around 730s). Others consider Justinian’s anti-pagan legislation, issued around 529, as the turning point. Finally, quite a few scholars avoid considering the early Byzantine period as part of the picture and see the beginning of the Iconoclastic Controversy in 726 or its end in 843 as the beginning of the Greek Middle Ages and Byzantine intellectual history.