Snakes and Souks: Zoonotic pathogens associated to reptiles in the Marrakech markets, Morocco

The world-famous markets of Marrakech, also known in Arabic as souks, harbor a vast diversity of reptiles that are sold for medicinal/magic/pet purposes or used for snake charming. This unique epidemiological context has never been studied considering the interactions of humans, reptiles, and zoonotic pathogens. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the parasites and pathogens present in blood and feces associated with handled reptiles in the markets of Marrakech to assess the risk of zoonotic transmission within the reptile-human interface. Privately owned reptiles (n = 118), coming from vendors or snake charmers, were examined and blood and feces sampled. DNA was extracted and molecular screening (cPCR, nPCR, qPCR, dqPCR) was performed aiming to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens (i.e., Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp., Cestoda). Overall, 28.9% (34/118) of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. In blood, Anaplasma spp. were detected in four snakes, with two Montpellier snakes positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, while Rickettsia spp. were detected in one Mediterranean chameleon and four puff adders. Leishmania tarentolae was molecularly detected in a Mediterranean chameleon and a Montpellier snake. In feces, the cox1 gene generated a myriad of sequences for nematodes, cestodes, fungi and bacteria. Importantly, Proteus vulgaris was identified from a Mediterranean chameleon. Cryptosporidium spp. nPCR yielded a positive sample (i.e., Cryptosporidium sp. apodemus genotype I) from a Moroccan worm lizard, as well as for bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from a puff adder. Results from this study demonstrated the risk of zoonotic transmission of microorganisms and parasites present in blood and feces from reptiles that are brought to the souks in Marrakech, Morocco, to be sold for medicinal purposes or used for snake charming, being in direct and straight contact with humans.Author summaryThe world-famous Marrakech souks (markets) are a unique and scarcely studied context where reptiles are in constant contact with humans and used for traditional medicine or for the ancient craft of snake charming. Hence, we aimed to identify the pathogens present in blood and feces of reptiles kept in the markets of Marrakech to assess the zoonotic risk. Animals from vendors or snake charmers were sampled. DNA was extracted and molecularly screened to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens. Overall, 28.9% of reptiles were positive for at least one pathogen. Importantly, we detected Anaplasma spp. from four snakes, Rickettsia spp. from Mediterranean chameleons and puff adders, and Leishmania tarentolae from snakes and chameleons. On the other hand, zoonotic bacteria such Proteus vulgaris were identified from a Mediterranean chameleon, Pseudomonas aeruginosa from Egyptian cobra, and Morganella morganii from puff adder. Thus, reptiles that are kept in the souks of Marrakech may play a role in the zoonotic transmission of pathogens and parasites, given the constant contact with humans.