Multiple hormone deficiencies in chronic heart failure

Anabolic hormones are endowed with powerful actions on both the cardiovascular system and the skeletal muscle. In western countries, an age-related decline of anabolic hormones including IGF-1, testosterone and DHEA-S is extensively described, and thought to contribute to sarcopenia, visceral adiposity and osteopenia. This decline has been often referred to as somato- and andro-pause. In the last decade, a growing body of evidence has led to the hypothesis that chronic heart failure (CHF) is indeed a multiple hormone deficiency syndrome (MHDS), characterized by a reduced anabolic drive that bears relevant functional and prognostic implications. Of note, Growth Hormone (GH) or testosterone replacement therapy provides beneficial effects, particularly on exercise tolerance and well-being.